Journal of Traditional Chinese Medicine ›› 2022, Vol. 42 ›› Issue (4): 641-651.DOI: 10.19852/j.cnki.jtcm.2022.04.007
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Herbal anthelmintic agents: a narrative review
Manjusa Adak, Pradeep Kumar(
)
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Natural Products, Central University of Punjab, Ghudda, Bathinda, Punjab 151401, India
-
Received:2021-10-16Accepted:2022-01-05Online:2022-08-15Published:2022-07-12 -
Contact:Pradeep Kumar -
About author:Pradeep Kumar, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Natural Products, Central University of Punjab, Ghudda, Bathinda, Punjab 151401, India. pradeepyadav27@gmail.com, Telephone: 9813774553
Cite this article
Manjusa Adak, Pradeep Kumar. Herbal anthelmintic agents: a narrative review[J]. Journal of Traditional Chinese Medicine, 2022, 42(4): 641-651.
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Table 1 Diseases caused by helminths
| Type of Helminths | Species | Diseases |
|---|---|---|
| Cestodes (Tapeworm) | Coenurus cerebralis - In sheep, rabbits, and rodents, - Humans become an intermediate host after ingesting food contaminated. | Coenurosis - Involvement of CNS. -Cysts are developed into ventricles, and sometimes within the parenchyma of the brain, spinal cord. |
| Diphyllobothrium latum - The fish tapeworm, infect humans who ingest raw and pickled freshwater fish. - Compete with hosts for certain vitamins and related substances particularly for vitamin B12 and split vitamin B12 intrinsic factor complex. | Diphyllobothriasis - Low concentration of vitamin B12 - Systemic and neurologic symptoms, including pallor, glossitis, loss of tongue papillae, numbness, paresthesias of feet and hand, depression, loss of vibratory sensation. - Optic neuropathy. | |
| Spirometra species - Cats and dogs (definitive host). - Humans are accidental hosts, acquire infection by drinking contaminated water. - Penetrate intestinal wall and migrate to brain and other tissues and grow to full size. | Sparganosis - Slow-growing, tender, migratory, subcutaneous nodules develop for several weeks or years. - Symptoms like fever, chill, edema, and peripheral eosinophilia. - In rare case, helminths travel to the eye and brain. | |
| Taenia solium - Tapeworms, migrate through the mucosa and enter in the CNS, eyes, and striated muscle. | Cysticercosis - Affects CNS, causes fever, headaches during the larval stage, progressive muscle weakness. | |
| Nematodes | Angiostrongylus cantonensis - Infect mollusks or fish. - In humans, it affects the upper respiratory tract, CNS | Angiostrongyliasis - Characterized by eosinophilic meningitis - Symptoms are rash, pruritus, abdominal pain, headache, stiff neck, vomiting, etc. |
| Gnathostoma spinigerum - Parasitizes the stomachs of cats and dogs. - Migrate through human tissue by ingestion of cooked animal flesh, drinking contaminated water | Gnathostomiasis - Mainly CNS can be affected, the spinal cord is affected initially. - Patients experience nausea, vomiting, upper abdominal pain, urticaria, pruritus, etc. | |
| Loa loa - Group of nematodes, also called filaria. - White, threadlike worms transmitted to humans by biting tabanid flies. | Loiasis - Infections are usually asymptomatic. - To treat loasis, one should consult an expert on tropical infectious diseases. | |
| Onchocerca volvulus - Similar to Loa loa. - Transmitted to humans by female black flies. | Onchocerciasis - Granulomatous reaction followed by fibrosis. - Skin lesions, characterized by erythematous, pruritis, rash, etc. | |
| Strongyloides stercoralis - Small nematodes, can parasitize the small bowel of humans. - This female worm hatch in the intestinal duodenum and jejunum and pass into feces. | Strongyloidiasis - Infection is caused in humans by skin contact with the contaminated soil. - Intestinal parasitism | |
| Toxocara canis and cati - Infects dogs and related mammals. - Eggs hatch into the small intestine of the host and larvae migrate into lungs, and trachea. | Toxocariasis - Human toxocariasis occurs accidentally by ingesting the faeces of infected dogs. - Conditions may develop to the eye, CNS, producing nonspecific systemic manifestations. | |
| Trichinella spiralis - Human infection occurs by eating raw and undercooked pork, bear, wild boar. - After eating, the larvae migrate to the stomach, then to the small intestine. | Trichinosis - Characterized by abdominal pain, vomiting, and diarrhea followed by fever, headache, lethargy, and severe muscle pain, weakness and tenderness. | |
| Paragonimus spices - Lung flukes, humans and other mammals are the final host, first intermediate host are snails, second intermediate host crustaceans. - Penetrating intestinal wall, entering into peritoneal cavity then migrating through diaphragm go to lungs. Schistosoma spices - Humans and other mammals are the final host, first intermediate host are snails, second intermediate host are crustaceans. - Found in intramedullary granuloma, spinal cord, CNS | Paragonimiasis - Most cases mild and asymptomatic. - Brownish sputum with cough and intermittent hemoptysis. - Chronic bronchitis. Schistosomiasis - Involvement of CNS. - Chronic schistosomiasis is more common than acute. - Acute schistosomiasis is caused by an immunological response to helminths. Chronic schistosomiasis is an inflammatory response to eggs. |
Table 1 Diseases caused by helminths
| Type of Helminths | Species | Diseases |
|---|---|---|
| Cestodes (Tapeworm) | Coenurus cerebralis - In sheep, rabbits, and rodents, - Humans become an intermediate host after ingesting food contaminated. | Coenurosis - Involvement of CNS. -Cysts are developed into ventricles, and sometimes within the parenchyma of the brain, spinal cord. |
| Diphyllobothrium latum - The fish tapeworm, infect humans who ingest raw and pickled freshwater fish. - Compete with hosts for certain vitamins and related substances particularly for vitamin B12 and split vitamin B12 intrinsic factor complex. | Diphyllobothriasis - Low concentration of vitamin B12 - Systemic and neurologic symptoms, including pallor, glossitis, loss of tongue papillae, numbness, paresthesias of feet and hand, depression, loss of vibratory sensation. - Optic neuropathy. | |
| Spirometra species - Cats and dogs (definitive host). - Humans are accidental hosts, acquire infection by drinking contaminated water. - Penetrate intestinal wall and migrate to brain and other tissues and grow to full size. | Sparganosis - Slow-growing, tender, migratory, subcutaneous nodules develop for several weeks or years. - Symptoms like fever, chill, edema, and peripheral eosinophilia. - In rare case, helminths travel to the eye and brain. | |
| Taenia solium - Tapeworms, migrate through the mucosa and enter in the CNS, eyes, and striated muscle. | Cysticercosis - Affects CNS, causes fever, headaches during the larval stage, progressive muscle weakness. | |
| Nematodes | Angiostrongylus cantonensis - Infect mollusks or fish. - In humans, it affects the upper respiratory tract, CNS | Angiostrongyliasis - Characterized by eosinophilic meningitis - Symptoms are rash, pruritus, abdominal pain, headache, stiff neck, vomiting, etc. |
| Gnathostoma spinigerum - Parasitizes the stomachs of cats and dogs. - Migrate through human tissue by ingestion of cooked animal flesh, drinking contaminated water | Gnathostomiasis - Mainly CNS can be affected, the spinal cord is affected initially. - Patients experience nausea, vomiting, upper abdominal pain, urticaria, pruritus, etc. | |
| Loa loa - Group of nematodes, also called filaria. - White, threadlike worms transmitted to humans by biting tabanid flies. | Loiasis - Infections are usually asymptomatic. - To treat loasis, one should consult an expert on tropical infectious diseases. | |
| Onchocerca volvulus - Similar to Loa loa. - Transmitted to humans by female black flies. | Onchocerciasis - Granulomatous reaction followed by fibrosis. - Skin lesions, characterized by erythematous, pruritis, rash, etc. | |
| Strongyloides stercoralis - Small nematodes, can parasitize the small bowel of humans. - This female worm hatch in the intestinal duodenum and jejunum and pass into feces. | Strongyloidiasis - Infection is caused in humans by skin contact with the contaminated soil. - Intestinal parasitism | |
| Toxocara canis and cati - Infects dogs and related mammals. - Eggs hatch into the small intestine of the host and larvae migrate into lungs, and trachea. | Toxocariasis - Human toxocariasis occurs accidentally by ingesting the faeces of infected dogs. - Conditions may develop to the eye, CNS, producing nonspecific systemic manifestations. | |
| Trichinella spiralis - Human infection occurs by eating raw and undercooked pork, bear, wild boar. - After eating, the larvae migrate to the stomach, then to the small intestine. | Trichinosis - Characterized by abdominal pain, vomiting, and diarrhea followed by fever, headache, lethargy, and severe muscle pain, weakness and tenderness. | |
| Paragonimus spices - Lung flukes, humans and other mammals are the final host, first intermediate host are snails, second intermediate host crustaceans. - Penetrating intestinal wall, entering into peritoneal cavity then migrating through diaphragm go to lungs. Schistosoma spices - Humans and other mammals are the final host, first intermediate host are snails, second intermediate host are crustaceans. - Found in intramedullary granuloma, spinal cord, CNS | Paragonimiasis - Most cases mild and asymptomatic. - Brownish sputum with cough and intermittent hemoptysis. - Chronic bronchitis. Schistosomiasis - Involvement of CNS. - Chronic schistosomiasis is more common than acute. - Acute schistosomiasis is caused by an immunological response to helminths. Chronic schistosomiasis is an inflammatory response to eggs. |
Figure 1 Secondary metabolites having anthelmintic activity C50: lethal concentration 50.
Figure 1 Secondary metabolites having anthelmintic activity C50: lethal concentration 50.
Figure 2 Terpenes having anthelmintic activity ED50: median effective dose; EC50: half maximal effective concentration.
Figure 2 Terpenes having anthelmintic activity ED50: median effective dose; EC50: half maximal effective concentration.
Figure 3 Glycosides having anthelmintic activity (LC50 = 80.4 µM) LC50: lethal concentration 50.
Figure 3 Glycosides having anthelmintic activity (LC50 = 80.4 µM) LC50: lethal concentration 50.
Figure 4 Saponins having anthelmintic activity
Figure 4 Saponins having anthelmintic activity
Figure 5 Flavonoids having anthelmintic activity
Figure 5 Flavonoids having anthelmintic activity
Figure 6 Tannins having anthelmintic activity
Figure 6 Tannins having anthelmintic activity
Figure 7 Alkaloids having anthelmintic activity
Figure 7 Alkaloids having anthelmintic activity
Figure 8 Non-protein amino acids having anthelmintic activity
Figure 8 Non-protein amino acids having anthelmintic activity
Table 2 Ion-channels as target sites for anthelmintics
| Parasite group | Target site | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Nematodes | Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor agonists | Levamisole |
| Large intestinal nematodes | Gamma-Aminobutyric acid receptor agonists | Piperazine |
| Nematodes and insect parasites | Glutamate-gated chloride channel receptor potentiators | Ivermectin |
| Cestodes and trematodes | Membrane calcium permeability enhancers | Praziquantel |
Table 2 Ion-channels as target sites for anthelmintics
| Parasite group | Target site | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Nematodes | Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor agonists | Levamisole |
| Large intestinal nematodes | Gamma-Aminobutyric acid receptor agonists | Piperazine |
| Nematodes and insect parasites | Glutamate-gated chloride channel receptor potentiators | Ivermectin |
| Cestodes and trematodes | Membrane calcium permeability enhancers | Praziquantel |
Table 3 Target sites for anthelmintics (other than ion-channels)
| Parasite group | Target site | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Nematodes, cestodes and trematodes | β-tubulin binders | Thiabendazole |
| Blood feeders: flukes, Haemonchus contortus, Oestrus ovis | Proton ionophores | Closantel |
| Immature Fasciola | Malate metabolism inhibitors | Diamphenethide |
| Fasciola | Phosphoglycerate kinase and mutase inhibitors | Clorsulon |
| Filaria | Arachidonic acid metabolism inhibitors | Biethylcarbamazine |
Table 3 Target sites for anthelmintics (other than ion-channels)
| Parasite group | Target site | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Nematodes, cestodes and trematodes | β-tubulin binders | Thiabendazole |
| Blood feeders: flukes, Haemonchus contortus, Oestrus ovis | Proton ionophores | Closantel |
| Immature Fasciola | Malate metabolism inhibitors | Diamphenethide |
| Fasciola | Phosphoglycerate kinase and mutase inhibitors | Clorsulon |
| Filaria | Arachidonic acid metabolism inhibitors | Biethylcarbamazine |
Figure 9 Monophenols having anthelmintic activity IC50: half maximal inhibitory concentration.
Figure 9 Monophenols having anthelmintic activity IC50: half maximal inhibitory concentration.
Figure 10 Benzene diols having anthelmintic activity
Figure 10 Benzene diols having anthelmintic activity
Figure 11 Substituted benzoic acids having anthelmintic activity
Figure 11 Substituted benzoic acids having anthelmintic activity
Figure 12 Cinnamic acid derivatives having anthelmintic activity
Figure 12 Cinnamic acid derivatives having anthelmintic activity
Figure 13 Prenyl derivatives having anthelmintic activity
Figure 13 Prenyl derivatives having anthelmintic activity
Figure 14 Macrocyclic lactone having anthelmintic activity
Figure 14 Macrocyclic lactone having anthelmintic activity
Figure 15 Piperine and strychinine
Figure 15 Piperine and strychinine
Table 4 Plants having anthelmintic activity
| Name | Biological sources | Mechanism of action | Chemical constituents |
|---|---|---|---|
| Myrrh | Commiphora myrrha or Commiphora molmol, Family-Burseraceae | Reduces activities of Alanine transminase (ALT) and Aspartate transminase (AST) | Limonene, Eugenol, a-Pinene, Cadinene, Acetic acid, Formic acid etc. |
| Tulsi | Ocimum sanctum Linn. Family-Lamiaceae | Causing paralysis of infected parasitic worms or death. | Carvacrol, Caryophyllene, Eugenol, Linalool, Urosolic acid, etc. |
| Chinaberry tree | Melia azedarach, Family- Meliaceae | Reacting with free proteins reduces the nutrients availability, thus larval death occurs due to starvation, or React with glycoproteins in the larval cuticle, causing death. | Spathulenol, Quercetin, Astragalin, 1,7,8-Trihydroxy-2-naphtaldehyde etc. |
| Papaya | Carica papaya, Family-Caricaceae | Killing the parasite worms by eosinophils, attack on structural protein of parasite nematodes. | Papain, Cystatin, Chymopapain, Ascorbic acid, Tocopherol. |
| Black caraway | Nigella sativa, Family-Ranunculaceae | Inhibiting the antioxidant enzymes thus produces a defense mechanism towards the oxidants generated by the parasitic nematode. | Linoleic acid, Oleic acid, Palmitic acid, p-cymene, Carvacrol, Thymol, α-Pinene. |
| Sohphlang | Flemingia vestita, Family-Leguminosae | Causing paralysis of infected parasitic worms or death. | Formononetin, Genistein, Daidzein, Pseudobaptigenin. |
| Walnut | Juglans regia, Family-Juglandaceae | It binds with the free protein of GIT of the host or interferes in energy generation of helminths, causing death of parasites. | Stearic acid, Palmitic acid, alpha Linolenic acid, Oleic acid, Catechin, Tannins. |
| Mimusops | Mimusops elengi, Family-Sapotaceae | Denaturation of proteins, produce defense mechanism, damages reactive oxygen species (ROS) properties. | Ursolic acid, Spinasterol, Taraxerol etc. |
| Pomegranate | Punica granatum Family-Punicaceae. | Inhibit transformation of larvae from egg, produce inflammation of epithelial cells by peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors-γ and δ-dependent mechanisms | Ellagic acid, Cyanidin-3-glucose, Pelargonidin-3-glucose etc. |
| Embelia | Embelia ribes, Family-Primulaceae | Paralysis of worms and reduces fecal eggs per gram (EPG). | Vanillic acid, Christembine, Cinnamic acid, O-cumaric acid, Embelin. |
| Epazote | Chenopodium ambrosioides, Family-Amaranthaceae. | Paralysis of the parasitic worms. | Limonene, α-Terpinene p-Cymene, Camphor Thymol. |
| Piliostigma | Piliostigma thonningii, Family-Fabaceae. | It stimulates the neuromuscular junction of the parasite mostly and sometimes its effects to the ganglion and cause larval paralysis. | Alepterolic acid, Anticopalic acid, Clovane-2β,9α-diol etc. |
| Asparagus | Asparagus officinalis, Asparagus racemosus, Family-Asparagaceae. | Causing paralysis of infected parasitic worms or death. | Racemosol, Asparagamine, Folic acid. |
| White clover | Trifolium repens, Family-Fabaceae. | Paralysis of worms and reduces EPG. | Rutin, Quercetin, Myricetin Kaempferol. |
| Fig | Ficus insipida, Family-Moraceae. | Causing paralysis of infected parasitic worms or death. | Vomifoliol, Dihydrophaseic acid, Dehydrovomifoliol etc. |
| Squash | Cucurbita maxima, Family-Cucurbitaceae. | Inhibit transformation of larvae from egg, reduces EPG. | Palmitic acid, Oleic acid, Linoleic acid, β-sitosterol. |
| Ajwain | Trachyspermum ammi, Family-Apiaceae or Umbelliferae. | Causing paralysis of infected parasitic worms or death. | Thymol, α-Pinene, α-Terpinene, β-Pinene, γ-terpinene, p-cymene. |
| Cinnamon | Cinnamomum zylanicum, Family - Lauraceae. | Inhibition of the parasitic egg hatching inhibits the fourth stage of larvae motility. | Eugenol, Cinnamic acid Cymene, Cinnamate. |
| Nutmeg | Myristica fragrans, Family -Myristicaceae. | Causing paralysis by inhibiting acetyl cholinesterase. | Myristicin, Eugenol, Safrole, Terpinene, Myristic acid. |
| Elecampane | Inula helenium, Family-Asteraceae. | Inhibitory effects on process of embryo development, paralysis by inhibiting acetylcholinesterase. | Alantolactone, Inulin, Helenin Stearoptene. |
| Clausena anisata | Clausena anisata, Family-Rutaceae. | Causing paralysis by inhibiting acetylcholinesterase. | Coumarins, Linalool, Myrcene, Anethole, Lomonene etc. |
| Zanthoxylum | Zanthoxylum zanthoxyloides, Family-Rutaceae. | Inhibition of the parasitic egg hatching prevents larvae from migrating. | Lomonine, Citronellal, Myrcene, α-pinene. |
| Annona | Annona squamosa, Family-Annonaceae. | Inhibition of the parasitic egg hatching inhibits cell division. | Anonain, OxophoebineIsocorydine, Reticulin. |
| False daisy | Eclipta prostrata, Family-Asteraceae. | Causing paralysis of infected parasitic worms or death. | Quercetin, β-Sitosterol, Luteoloside, Apigenin, Luteolin. |
| Name | Biological sources | Mechanism of action | Chemical constituents |
| Turkey berry | Solanum torvum, Family-Solanaceae. | Causing paralysis of infected parasitic worms, or reduces EPG. | Quercetin, Isoquarecetin Kaempferol, Rutin etc. |
| Myrobalan | Terminalia chebula, Family -Combretaceae. | Interrupts in energy production by binds free protein from GI tract or oxidative phosphorylation. | Arjungenin, Chebulin, Ellagic acid, Chebulic acid, Gallic acid. |
| Vinca | Catharanthus roseus, Family-Apocynaceae | Prevents polymerization of tubulin into microtubules. | Vincristine, Vinblastine Catharanthine etc. |
| Celandine | Chelidonium majus, Family-Papaveraceae | Reduce ROS generation, paralysis the parasitic worms. | Chelidonine, Sanguinarine, Caffeic acid, Protopine. |
| Mentha | Mentha cordifolia, Family-Lamiaceae | Causing paralysis of infected parasitic worms or death. | Carvone, Limonene, Menthol. |
| Sainfoin | Onobrychis viciifolia, Family-Fabaceae. | Reduce nematode excretion from GI tract, delay in egg maturation. | Tannin, Rutin, Nicotiflorin. |
| Ashwagandha | Withania somnifera, Family -Solanaceae | Causing paralysis of infected parasitic worms or death. | Withanolides, Anaferine, Sitoindoside. |
| Coriander | Coriandrum sativum, Family - Apiaceae | Reduce faecal egg count of worm and also inhibit the egg hatching process. | Linalool, Camphor, Geraniol, Coumarins, Linoleic acid. |
Table 4 Plants having anthelmintic activity
| Name | Biological sources | Mechanism of action | Chemical constituents |
|---|---|---|---|
| Myrrh | Commiphora myrrha or Commiphora molmol, Family-Burseraceae | Reduces activities of Alanine transminase (ALT) and Aspartate transminase (AST) | Limonene, Eugenol, a-Pinene, Cadinene, Acetic acid, Formic acid etc. |
| Tulsi | Ocimum sanctum Linn. Family-Lamiaceae | Causing paralysis of infected parasitic worms or death. | Carvacrol, Caryophyllene, Eugenol, Linalool, Urosolic acid, etc. |
| Chinaberry tree | Melia azedarach, Family- Meliaceae | Reacting with free proteins reduces the nutrients availability, thus larval death occurs due to starvation, or React with glycoproteins in the larval cuticle, causing death. | Spathulenol, Quercetin, Astragalin, 1,7,8-Trihydroxy-2-naphtaldehyde etc. |
| Papaya | Carica papaya, Family-Caricaceae | Killing the parasite worms by eosinophils, attack on structural protein of parasite nematodes. | Papain, Cystatin, Chymopapain, Ascorbic acid, Tocopherol. |
| Black caraway | Nigella sativa, Family-Ranunculaceae | Inhibiting the antioxidant enzymes thus produces a defense mechanism towards the oxidants generated by the parasitic nematode. | Linoleic acid, Oleic acid, Palmitic acid, p-cymene, Carvacrol, Thymol, α-Pinene. |
| Sohphlang | Flemingia vestita, Family-Leguminosae | Causing paralysis of infected parasitic worms or death. | Formononetin, Genistein, Daidzein, Pseudobaptigenin. |
| Walnut | Juglans regia, Family-Juglandaceae | It binds with the free protein of GIT of the host or interferes in energy generation of helminths, causing death of parasites. | Stearic acid, Palmitic acid, alpha Linolenic acid, Oleic acid, Catechin, Tannins. |
| Mimusops | Mimusops elengi, Family-Sapotaceae | Denaturation of proteins, produce defense mechanism, damages reactive oxygen species (ROS) properties. | Ursolic acid, Spinasterol, Taraxerol etc. |
| Pomegranate | Punica granatum Family-Punicaceae. | Inhibit transformation of larvae from egg, produce inflammation of epithelial cells by peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors-γ and δ-dependent mechanisms | Ellagic acid, Cyanidin-3-glucose, Pelargonidin-3-glucose etc. |
| Embelia | Embelia ribes, Family-Primulaceae | Paralysis of worms and reduces fecal eggs per gram (EPG). | Vanillic acid, Christembine, Cinnamic acid, O-cumaric acid, Embelin. |
| Epazote | Chenopodium ambrosioides, Family-Amaranthaceae. | Paralysis of the parasitic worms. | Limonene, α-Terpinene p-Cymene, Camphor Thymol. |
| Piliostigma | Piliostigma thonningii, Family-Fabaceae. | It stimulates the neuromuscular junction of the parasite mostly and sometimes its effects to the ganglion and cause larval paralysis. | Alepterolic acid, Anticopalic acid, Clovane-2β,9α-diol etc. |
| Asparagus | Asparagus officinalis, Asparagus racemosus, Family-Asparagaceae. | Causing paralysis of infected parasitic worms or death. | Racemosol, Asparagamine, Folic acid. |
| White clover | Trifolium repens, Family-Fabaceae. | Paralysis of worms and reduces EPG. | Rutin, Quercetin, Myricetin Kaempferol. |
| Fig | Ficus insipida, Family-Moraceae. | Causing paralysis of infected parasitic worms or death. | Vomifoliol, Dihydrophaseic acid, Dehydrovomifoliol etc. |
| Squash | Cucurbita maxima, Family-Cucurbitaceae. | Inhibit transformation of larvae from egg, reduces EPG. | Palmitic acid, Oleic acid, Linoleic acid, β-sitosterol. |
| Ajwain | Trachyspermum ammi, Family-Apiaceae or Umbelliferae. | Causing paralysis of infected parasitic worms or death. | Thymol, α-Pinene, α-Terpinene, β-Pinene, γ-terpinene, p-cymene. |
| Cinnamon | Cinnamomum zylanicum, Family - Lauraceae. | Inhibition of the parasitic egg hatching inhibits the fourth stage of larvae motility. | Eugenol, Cinnamic acid Cymene, Cinnamate. |
| Nutmeg | Myristica fragrans, Family -Myristicaceae. | Causing paralysis by inhibiting acetyl cholinesterase. | Myristicin, Eugenol, Safrole, Terpinene, Myristic acid. |
| Elecampane | Inula helenium, Family-Asteraceae. | Inhibitory effects on process of embryo development, paralysis by inhibiting acetylcholinesterase. | Alantolactone, Inulin, Helenin Stearoptene. |
| Clausena anisata | Clausena anisata, Family-Rutaceae. | Causing paralysis by inhibiting acetylcholinesterase. | Coumarins, Linalool, Myrcene, Anethole, Lomonene etc. |
| Zanthoxylum | Zanthoxylum zanthoxyloides, Family-Rutaceae. | Inhibition of the parasitic egg hatching prevents larvae from migrating. | Lomonine, Citronellal, Myrcene, α-pinene. |
| Annona | Annona squamosa, Family-Annonaceae. | Inhibition of the parasitic egg hatching inhibits cell division. | Anonain, OxophoebineIsocorydine, Reticulin. |
| False daisy | Eclipta prostrata, Family-Asteraceae. | Causing paralysis of infected parasitic worms or death. | Quercetin, β-Sitosterol, Luteoloside, Apigenin, Luteolin. |
| Name | Biological sources | Mechanism of action | Chemical constituents |
| Turkey berry | Solanum torvum, Family-Solanaceae. | Causing paralysis of infected parasitic worms, or reduces EPG. | Quercetin, Isoquarecetin Kaempferol, Rutin etc. |
| Myrobalan | Terminalia chebula, Family -Combretaceae. | Interrupts in energy production by binds free protein from GI tract or oxidative phosphorylation. | Arjungenin, Chebulin, Ellagic acid, Chebulic acid, Gallic acid. |
| Vinca | Catharanthus roseus, Family-Apocynaceae | Prevents polymerization of tubulin into microtubules. | Vincristine, Vinblastine Catharanthine etc. |
| Celandine | Chelidonium majus, Family-Papaveraceae | Reduce ROS generation, paralysis the parasitic worms. | Chelidonine, Sanguinarine, Caffeic acid, Protopine. |
| Mentha | Mentha cordifolia, Family-Lamiaceae | Causing paralysis of infected parasitic worms or death. | Carvone, Limonene, Menthol. |
| Sainfoin | Onobrychis viciifolia, Family-Fabaceae. | Reduce nematode excretion from GI tract, delay in egg maturation. | Tannin, Rutin, Nicotiflorin. |
| Ashwagandha | Withania somnifera, Family -Solanaceae | Causing paralysis of infected parasitic worms or death. | Withanolides, Anaferine, Sitoindoside. |
| Coriander | Coriandrum sativum, Family - Apiaceae | Reduce faecal egg count of worm and also inhibit the egg hatching process. | Linalool, Camphor, Geraniol, Coumarins, Linoleic acid. |
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